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Mike Beaken (2018). The Making of Language (2nd edition revised). Scitsiugnil Press: London, UK. 2.8 meg file ISBN: 978-1-9999369-3-8 Copyleft 2018 First edition published 1996 by Edinburgh University Press Second edition published 2011 by Dunedin Academic Press Ltd

In this revised 2nd edition, Mike Beaken argues that the origins of human communication and ultimately of grammatical language lie in the interactions that are at the heart of cooperative labour.

From early human interactions such as foraging, hunting, and also music, dance and chanting, has arisen spoken language. It is through the development of registers of speech associated with the varied activities of human existence, such as collective labour, the raising of children, or the regulation of social relationships, that human societies have established bodies of rules that we recognise as grammar. As human societies have moved from foraging to agriculture and finally to city life, so grammars have evolved from ‘semantic alignment’ into the more relational syntax of modern languages.

As Professor Jim Hurford said of an earlier edition, ‘the book provides much to get to argumentative grips with, wrapped up in a very humane and civilised package’.

Contents
Introduction	1
1. The story so far	5
Neglect and rediscovery	5
Soviet tradition	7
The Search for Proto-languages	8
Chomsky and Universal Grammar	10
The end of UG?	11
Variety in languages	12
Key argument – recursion	12
How children learn language	15
Darwin and language origins	16
Problem of biological reductionism	18
Animal communication	19
Languages and ‘descent with variation’	20
Genetics	22
Brains and Language	23
Children’s brains and language	27
Brain plasticity	29
Finally	29
2. Language and Labour	31
Traditions of linguistic thought	31
What is meant by labour?	31
Relevance to language origins	32
Origins of communication in labour	32
The sign, a solution to a problem	33
Labour, language and consciousness	34
Language and Technology	36
Significance of tools	36
Division of Labour	37
Forms of ideality	38
The ideality of money	38
Comments on ideality	39
Language as a form of ideality	40
Concepts, knowledge, language	41
Notions and Concepts	41
The concept of ‘seed’	42
Historical concepts – the best available	43
Language as a power	44
Words as controllers: linguistic determinism	45
Two-sided nature of words	46
Language as tool	47
Memorizing	47
Knot-tying	47
Language as a means to self-control	48
Decision-making	48
Social activity and register	49
Inner Speech	50
Registers and Linguistic Change	51
Conclusion	52
3. Apes, hominids and common ancestors	53
Chimpanzees’ life in the wild	54
Chimp intelligence	55
Egocentrism of chimps	56
Studies of chimpanzee communication	57
Limits to symbol use	58
The ideational and the interpersonal	58
Chimpanzee Gestures in the wild	59
How important are gestures in chimpanzee society?	61
Why can’t chimps speak?	62
The vocal apparatus of chimpanzees	62
They are governed by emotions	63
They use noise in a different way from us	64
Gaining self-control	65
Music and dance	67
Co-operation among chimps	67
The Next Stage?	68
4. Gesture and origins of meaning	69
The gesture theory of language origins	69
Supporting evidence	70
Existing gesture languages	70
Children’s language development	71
Language pathology	72
The Characteristics of gestural language	72
Technical progress	74
Learning time	74
The Form of Early Gestural Language	74
‘Semantic Phonology’ and the origins of syntax in gesture.	75
Life and syntax	76
The development of early gestures	76
Disadvantages of gesture?	78
Differential access to information?	78
Abstract ideas; gesture for concrete?	79
Iconicity v. Arbitrariness	79
Speed of processing information	80
Overload of information	81
Natural Selection of speech?	81
Gesture today	83
5. The making of human beings	85
The Upright apes	88
Tools	92
Australopithecine language?	92
Homo habilis and Homo erectus	93
Anatomy of Homo Erectus	93
Sexual dimorphism reduced	94
Brain Size	94
Tools and technology	94
Hunters?	95
Children	95
The human factor	96
The home base and the generation taboo	97
How are taboos relevant to language?	98
Language in this period	99
Tools and language	101
Language of Homo erectus?	102
Archaic Homo sapiens	102
Technology	103
Fire, diet and anatomy	104
Social effects of Fire	104
Anatomy for language among archaic Homo sapiens ?	105
Language among archaic Homo sapiens?	106
A true transition	106
The Neanderthals	106
Anatomy	107
Were they a separate species?	108
Neandrophobia	109
Could they speak?	111
What happened in Europe?	112
Genetic tests	113
The ‘human revolution’	113
Development of the tribe	115
Brother looks after sister	115
Effect of taboos	116
Origins of Hunter Gatherer Life	117
Features of Hunter Gatherer life	118
Egalitarianism	118
No formal system of political organisation or control	119
All problems are dealt with collectively	119
Mutual dependence across groups	119
Group size and resources	120
Importance of totemism	120
Language for survival among foragers	120
Oral traditions for survival	121
Magic as part of oral tradition	121
Magic in the Upper Palaeolithic	123
Summary	123
6. The making of speech	125
Biological bases of speech?	125
Why replace gesture?	125
Advantages of speech	125
Fossil Evidence for Speech	126
Language as Memory	127
Anatomical changes in the Vocal tract	128
The lowering of the larynx	128
Changes in the glottis	130
Shape of jaw, teeth, tongue	131
Changes in breathing	132
Theories of Speech Origins	132
From animal call	132
Speech from music, song, dance?	133
Mimicry as source of speech	133
Motor Theory	134
Sound symbolism	134
Secret languages	136
Origins of speech sounds	138
Vocalisation freed from instinct.	139
Self-defence and Intimidation	139
Calling	139
Singing	139
Co-ordinating activities	140
The structure of human vocalisations	140
CV Structure – why is it important?	140
Where do vowels come from?	141
Where do consonants come from?	142
Regulating social and individual activity	143
Work song as psychological tool	144
The beginnings of contrastive sound	144
The emergence of meaningful sound	144
7. The making of music	147
Universality of Music	148
Music and the body	149
Brains	149
Physical basis of music	150
Origins of Music in Activity	151
The importance of Rhythm	153
Music and Language	154
Music for survival	155
Summary	156
8. The making of grammar	159
What is grammar and where does it come from?	159
The First Words	159
Comparisons with infants’ learning	159
Grammaticisation	162
Syntax and discourse	164
Grammar as reflection of practical activity	167
Pre-political languages	167
Characteristics of pre-political languages	168
The tasks of a pre-political language	171
Division of labour between men and women.	171
Grammar as reflection of worldview	172
Noun-class grammar.	173
What is the principle of the categories?	174
Leakey on Kikuyu	176
Decline of world view	177
Summary	177
9. Is there progress in language?	179
Culture and Language	180
Vocabulary	180
Class society and sex gender	182
Forms of possession	184
Absence of the verb have	187
Summary	189
Concrete to Abstract in Grammar	189
Pre-political societies and semantic grammar	191
City life and abstract notions	191
Semantic and syntactic grammars compared	192
City Life and Language	192
Halliday on Science	195
Struggles to change language	197
Finally	197
Bibliography	199